Cell Biol Educ 3(2): 99-110 2004
DOI: 10.1187/cbe.03-08-0010
© 2004 American Society for Cell Biology
Microscopy Images as Interactive Tools in Cell Modeling and Cell Biology Education
Tania C. Araújo-Jorge*,
,
Tania S. Cardona*,
Cláudia L.S. Mendes*,
Andrea Henriques-Pons*,
Rosane M.S. Meirelles*,
Cláudia M.L.M. Coutinho*,
Luiz Edmundo V. Aguiar
,
Maria de Nazareth L. Meirelles
,
Solange L. de Castro*,
Helene S. Barbosa, and
Mauricio R.M.P. Luz*
* Laboratory of Cell Biology and
Laboratory of Cell Ultrastructure, Department
of Ultrastructure and Cell Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute—Fiocruz, Av.
Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, Manguinhos, RJ 21045-900; and
CEFET—Química, Rua Lucio Tavares
1045, Centro, Nilópolis, RJ 26530-060, Brasil
Submitted August 29, 2003;
Revised February 7, 2004;
Accepted February 10, 2004
 |
ABSTRACT
|
|---|
The advent of genomics, proteomics, and microarray technology has brought
much excitement to science, both in teaching and in learning. The public is
eager to know about the processes of life. In the present context of the
explosive growth of scientific information, a major challenge of modern cell
biology is to popularize basic concepts of structures and functions of living
cells, to introduce people to the scientific method, to stimulate inquiry, and
to analyze and synthesize concepts and paradigms. In this essay we present our
experience in mixing science and education in Brazil. For two decades we have
developed activities for the science education of teachers and undergraduate
students, using microscopy images generated by our work as cell biologists. We
describe open-air outreach education activities, games, cell modeling, and
other practical and innovative activities presented in public squares and
favelas. Especially in developing countries, science education is
important, since it may lead to an improvement in quality of life while
advancing understanding of traditional scientific ideas. We show that teaching
and research can be mutually beneficial rather than competing pursuits in
advancing these goals.
Key Words: microscopy • high-school students
"Education has to be an integral part of science"
—Bruce Alberts, President of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
(Opening address to the ASBMB meeting, May 1999, San Francisco)
|
INTRODUCTION
|
|---|
The advent of genomics, microarray technology, protein structure
determination, carbohydrate chemistry, and catalytic RNA, among others, has
brought much excitement to science, both in teaching and in learning
(Huang, 2000). The public is
eager to know about the processes of life, with cell biology and biochemistry
at the center of the excitement. In the context of the explosive growth of
scientific information, modern cell biology faces many challenges such as
popularizing basic concepts of structure-function relationships of living
cell, introducing people to the scientific method, stimulating inquiry, and
reviewing general concepts and paradigms (Barghava, 1995).
Undergraduate science education is challenged in countries that are large
science producers, such as the United States
(National Science Foundation,
1996), as well as in countrie that contribute to global science to
only a minor extent, such as Brazil
(Castro-Moreira, 2003). In
Brazil, students and teachers are not familiar with real cell images and are
introduced to cell biology mainly through premade drawings and diagrams that
do not facilitate any real inquiry into cell structure or function. Some
innovative strategies to address these challenges have been developed, such as
introducing research activities for students
(Lanza, 1988); reading
classical papers, reproducing classical experiments, analyzing results, and
stimulating inquiry into new and old questions
(Chiappetta, 1997;
Uno, 1997); using research
data in classrooms (e.g.,
http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/);
and mixing science and art in chemistry classes
(Aguiar, 2000). These authors
identified the problems in traditional teaching and what needed to be done in
the future. They promoted "science for all students," provided
students with a supportive learning environment, and helped them undertake
inquiry-based learning (Chiapetta, 1997). In this essay, we present 20 years
of experience in popularizing science education of teachers and undergraduate
students using microscopy images generated as a part of our ongoing research
programs. Brown-Acquaye (2001)
emphasized the importance of science education in developing countries since
this may lead to an improvement in quality of life and better comprehension of
local practices based on traditional knowledge.
The present work was conduced at the Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), the main
research unit of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), a branch of the
Brazilian Ministry of Health. IOC's mission is to generate, absorb, and
diffuse science and technology to improve health and the environment. This
mission is accomplished by integrating activities addressing basic and applied
research, teaching, production of vaccines, drugs, and diagnostic kits and
services (Coura, 2000). We
collaborate closely with the nonprofit nongovernmental association founded in
1982, Espaço Ciência Viva [Space for a Living Science].
We engaged many senior and junior scientists from different institutions in
Rio de Janeiro, for cooperative work on popularization of science
(Bazin et al.,
1987).
|
BRINGING SCIENCE TO THE COMMUNITY
|
|---|
For >20 years we have developed and performed interactive activities on
cell biology in places where they commonly do not occur, such as public
squares and favelas in Rio de Janeiro
(Bazin et al., 1987,
Araújo-Jorge et al.,
1999). Similar activities have also been developed in more
traditional places such as schools and science centers. Special festival
activities have been regularly performed, focusing on astronomy on the
so-called "Nights of the Sky"
(Figure 1a), on cell biology on
the "Days of the Cell" (Figure
1b-e), and on cell parasitology on the "Days of Water"
(Figure 1, f and g). Science
and art mixed in those activities, with the engagement of the theater group
Tá na Rua [On the Streets]. Tá na Rua uses the streets
as their stage and involves people in their plays. However, in our open-air
biology activities, microscopes and living cells were the real stars.
Microscope images obtained under technologies that were unavailable to the
public were also introduced, both in panels that accompanied the microscope
tables and in presentations in public squares
(Figure 1d), where our
scientists told simple stories about cell origin, cell structure, and cell
function. In these presentations, the scientists were asked the most
unexpected questions (e.g., "Is the cell somewhat related to genetic
engineering?"). Espaço Ciência Viva senior and junior
scientists, as well as many of their graduate students, worked in concert with
community-based associations. Many times the investigators joined an effort to
help people understand how "invisible animals commonly cause
diseases." We and others (Caniato,
1992) realize that most people in Brazil have never seen cells
through a microscope and have fragmented knowledge of cell biology concepts
Many times, the knowledge they do have is incorrect and is learned in contexts
dissociated from their real lives and from their knowledge regarding their own
bodies. Working in a cell biology laboratory, where images merge constantly
with ideas, we wanted to share the passion and pleasure of doing science with
children, adults, teachers, and students. We were determined to use our
diverse cell images to share our research data through educational outreach
activities.
View larger version (316K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 1. Activities conduced by the group Espaço Ciência Viva
in Brazil: (a) local newspaper notice of an event about astronomy, entitled
"To Socialize the Scientific Knowledge"; (b) leaflet inviting
people for the "Day of the Cell" in a public square; (c)
microscope observation; (d) lecture at an open-air "Day of the
Cell"; (e) playing with "mitochondria" and
"chloroplast" inside a giant plant cell model associated with the
microscope activities in the science center; (f) microscope observation at a
favela during a "Day of the Water," to discover
microorganisms and other aspects of water's involvement in health; (g) local
newspaper notice of a public event at a slum in Rio de Janeiro, entitled
"Scientists Invade the Favela of Salgueiro," in Rio de
Janeiro.
|
|
|
CELL BIOLOGISTS SHARING THEIR IMAGES: A GALLERY FOR EDUCATION AND PUBLIC LITERACY
|
|---|
We started by asking cell biology colleagues to donate some of their images
from cells according to the following criteria: good technical quality (no
artifacts), coverage of different techniques of specimen preparation (live
cells, fixed cells, stained or not, imbedded or not for optical or electron
microscopy), diversity of members of the life evolution tree (eukaryotes;
prokaryotes: eubacteria and archebacteria; viruses), and diversity of
intracellular components and compartments (nuclei, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, cytoskeleton, plastids, etc.). Some images were
also taken from Web sites or academic publications and used by permission.
Initially, the images were used to create a gallery that included the original
information concerning magnification, biological source, and description of
technical histological or cytological procedures. They were used to prepare
posters to illustrate the public lectures. Later, the images were also
employed to develop interactive activities in cell biology education workshops
for teachers and students and to build a giant cell model for two science
museums in Rio de Janeiro. Properly scaled 3D models
(Figure 2) can be built as a
giant cell for use in science museums (Figures
1e and
2b) as well as smaller ones for
use in schools (Figure 2b,
inset). At the Life Museum at Fiocruz
(Araújo-Jorge et al.,
1999), we integrated a giant cell into a set of activities
performed with microscopes to help students and teachers comprehend the
electron microscope scale (100,000 times magnified). As the science museum
visitors enter the giant cell, they walk into a fantasy stage where they are
part actors and part scientists, faced with the challenge of discovering what
those "strange" bodies/organelles are, their composition, and
their function. The giant model also motivates visitors to participate in
other exhibits at the science museum.
View larger version (356K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 2. Electron microscopic images of plant cells (a, c) that served as templates
for constructing a giant cell model exhibited at the Life Museum, at the
Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro (b, d). Images from a transmission
electron microscope (a) or scanning electron microscope (c) may be useful to
construct 3D models. Cell wall (w), nucleus (n), chloroplasts (c), vacuole
(v), mitochondria (m), and Golgi (g).
|
|
|
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES
|
|---|
The high interest in the microscope activities in the public squares
inspired us to organize workshops for teachers
(Figure 3, a and b), to develop
a guide for the practical activities
(Figures 3c-f), and to
introduce games as tools for motivating and/or complementing the laboratory
activities. Interactive experiments, modeling, drawing, and playing games were
used as strategies for the development of the proposed activities, in which
the students had to take an active and constructive outlook. During six
successive versions of a course called Scientific Literacy and Popularization,
more than 50 molecular and cell biology graduate students developed 20
different projects; of them were prototypes of educational games
(Araújo-Jorge, 2000).
Two games used light (Figure
4a) and electron (Figure
4c) microscope images as a puzzle of a microscopic field
(Figure 4b) or as a tracking
board of the differentiation of spermatozoa.
View larger version (312K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 3. Workshops with teachers for interactive microscope activities (a) and cell
modeling (b), and the front cover of the first four modules (c-f) of the
series of handout sheets for science activities, "With Science at
School."
|
|
View larger version (256K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 4. Prototype of games developed with images from light (a) and electron (c)
microscopy. In the cell puzzle the microscopy field that can be observed in a
real instrument (b) can be reconstructed in the game, where the individual
pieces were cut at the cell wall boundaries. In the game about spermatozoid
transformation (c) the challenge is to follow the steps in the process of cell
differentiation.
|
|
Microscope activities with the aquatic plant Elodea sp. and the
Elodea cell puzzle were evaluated by a multidisciplinary group of
teachers, M.Sc. and Ph.D. students, and two senior researchers, who tested the
first prototypes of the activities. The activities were further assessed by 30
teachers (Figure 3b) and 40
students using a semistructured interview. Specific agreements were obtained
with public- or private-school authorities to use the strategies and materials
as part of the practical activities of the students, which were thus inserted
into the curriculum. In the cell puzzle game evaluation, we observed a low
percentage (15.4%) of students who correctly answered the question "What
kind of a cell is in the organism you see under the microscope?" and a
high frequency (42.3%) of wrong or confused answers. We noted that even those
students who knew that plant cells would be observed in
Elodea did not recognize the cells when observing them through the
microscope. Real images of cells were unfamiliar to them, and the use of the
puzzle game, after observing the same material under the microscope, helped
the teacher reconstruct the students' mental cell model and, thus,
demonstrated the relevance of the images and puzzle as material didactic and
enjoyable resources. The educational resources are viable tools that have the
potential to motivate students and teachers in the classrooms. These
particular images and puzzles were especially interesting to teachers, since
the materials were suitable for both elementary- and high-school classes,
allowing different levels of microscopic exploration depending on the
educational goals.
|
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH QUALITY IMAGE GUIDE: "COM CIÊNCIA NA ESCOLA"
|
|---|
In all the workshops, printed images were frequently requested by the
attending public, to assure full comprehension of what they were seeing
through the microscopes. We then rebuilt our original gallery of cell images,
made them available in good print quality for the teachers, and prepared a new
guidebook for practical activities, Com Ciência na Escola
[With Science at School] (Figure
3c-f). In Portuguese, the expression Com Ciência
sounds similar to the word consciência, which means
"awareness" or "consciousness.") The guidebook
organized suggestions on laboratory activities using microscopes and changed
the "cookbook" view of the traditional guidebooks. In these
activities, we offered suggestions on things to do, things to think about, and
questions to answer but never provided the answers to the proposed questions,
thus creating a real space for teacher creativity and experimentation
conducted with their students. Images obtained under conditions similar to
those proposed in the protocols were also provided, allowing the students to
compare their observations with those of other authors. In addition, some
basic procedures of the scientific method were incorporated in all the
activities: construct protocol notebooks (Figures
3b and
5a), record the goals, ask
questions or pose hypotheses, describe materials and methods used in the
experiments, comment on the results obtained, and record the
conclusions—which often leads to new questions and new experiments.
Students were gradually introduced to data analysis tools and information
about different equipment, methods, drawings, or models. Students considered
the choice of different experimental models to address questions and to
generate data; one of the most frequently used was Elodea
(Figure 5b)
(Carstensen et al.,
1990; Walker,
1994), as well as two more common research organisms, yeast
(Manney and Manney, 1992) and
C. elegans (Hodkin et al., 1998;
Morgan, 1999). Magnetic
bacteria or nonpathogenic protozoa can also be used in the classrooms to
advance biology education. These organisms are less costly and affected by
fewer ethical constraints. The practice of using live experimental model
organisms in classroom activities, analyzing results, and discussing
conclusions could help to bridge the fields of science and education,
simulating the actual process of science advance.
View larger version (257K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 5. A sheet for the protocol notebook (a) and Elodea as one of the
experimental models (b) suggested in the education material. (c-e) An activity
to estimate the relative size of the mitochondrial compartment in an animal
cell by drawing their contours on a transparency sheet, cutting them out, and
weighting the profiles on a balance.
|
|
We wanted to learn from elementary- or high-school teachers what questions
would improve cell biology in the classroom. We narrowed this down to four
questions for the first four modules of the series: How do microscopes work?
How can we experiment (and not just demonstrate) using a microscope in the
classroom? What do cells look like under an optical or electron microscope?
and How are the intracellular structures seen in images obtained using
different techniques?
The first modules of the Com Ciência na Escola series start
with these four questions (examples of front covers in
Figure 3, c-f). The modules
were initially available on CD-ROM as files to print, since common PCs and
printers are available to the teachers in almost every school, at least in the
major cities in Brazil. The printed versions are a series of individual
handouts, each one proposing three to five different practical activities on a
common subject that can be selected for use by the teachers or the students.
In some of the modules, light and electron microscopic images are proposed as
templates for different activities such as (a) outlining all the inner
structures of plant and animal cells, protozoa, and bacteria
(Figure 6); (b) sculpting inner
structures with modeling clay in two or three dimensions, maintaining the
natural scales of the real images (Figure
7, a-c); (c) modeling cells with balloons or condoms filled with
water to let the students "feel" what the consistency of a cell
should be (Figure 7, d and e);
(d) modeling inner cell organelles to scale, to construct 3D models of cells
(Figure 2, b and d); and (e)
measuring cells and intracellular components
(Figure 5, c-e).
View larger version (261K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 6. Images versus drawings. Original transmission electron microscopic images
of a lymphocyte (a), a plant cell (c), and a bacteriophage with virus (e) and
the corresponding 2D diagrams (b, d, and f) prepared by students over the
image templates on a transparency sheet.
|
|
View larger version (227K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 7. Image of cells (a, d) serving as templates for sculpting organelles of
modeling clay to scale (a-c) or for modeling with toy balloons filled with
water (e).
|
|
According to our pilot test of these activities, none of 30 teachers had
ever drawn his or her own sketch of a cell based on a real microscope image
(Figure 6, a and b). By
overlaying transparency sheets and using color pens, the teachers clearly
highlighted the complexity of cytoplasm and nuclear contents in the real
images. The simplicity of the schematic diagrams that emerged from their
drawings were useful to help discover the main different cell compartments,
such as the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, and a
diversity of granules. The teachers could see and draw different vesicles and
particles and were then confronted with the difficulty of identifing
structures without a marker of their function. So a vesicle's identity and
function become a problem-solving method of posing new questions instead of an
answer (Chiappetta, 1997;
DebBurman, 2002). This was an
important and integral part of the activities, since both the teachers and the
students started posing new questions after answering the initial question.
The answering and asking of questions are one of main elements of the
scientific thinking and an important skill to develop during science education
courses. Students show the same ease (and fascination) as their teachers when
tracing the intracellular outlines using microscopic images
(Figure 6, c-f). In the example
shown in Figure 6, c and d, the
difference in size of mitochondria and chloroplast, which are often
represented as similar-sized structures in books, came out clearly in the
drawing by a 12-year-old student. In the diagram of a bacteriophage drawn by
another student (Figure 6, e and
f), the association of virus particles and bacterial nucleic
material and the great difference in their sizes became obvious. The same
images used to generate 2D diagrams allowed a more tactile experience when
inner cell compartments were sculpted with modeling clay
(Figure 7, a-c) and the
students were confronted with all the details and relative sizes and forms of
the different cell organelles and compartments. The advantage of these
graphical exercises is the emotional involvement of an amusing activity
commonly performed by children and recently rediscovered as a pedagogic
strategy even for illustrating literature books
(Xavier, 1997). Membrane-bound
structures and their contents can be easily represented and the relative
proportion of each cell compartment can be estimated. Indeed, exercises can be
developed with microscopic images, such as measurement of the microscopic
field (Ekstrom, 2000,
2001) to estimate the cell
size. Although image-processing digital photography software can refine these
practices (Ekstrom, 2002), a
nondigital and affordable alternative version of such morphometric studies can
be performed by weighting the compartment profiles that are drawn and cut (in
the example in Figure 5, a-c,
the profiles of mitochondria) and relating them to the whole weight of the
section studied.
The building of water-filled models
(Figure 7e) was always a wonder
for both teachers and students. For these models, the relative scales and
proportions of inner cell compartments are not the focus; instead, the
important novelty is the mobility of different globules and granules that can
be represented by balloons of different sizes and colors filled with water.
Filling the whole "cell" with water, with liquids of different
densities, or with gels allowed the strange experience of feeling what would
be the consistency of a cell if one could touch it. A neuron was modeled and
empty plastic pencils were used to simulate the cytoskeleton and sculpt the
dendrites (Figure 7, d and e).
Implantation cone and axons with nodes of Ranvier were also chosen by teachers
to be represented in the model. Watery cell models are educational 3D toys
that can be constructed easily to permit different perceptions of the
moving/plastic aspect of the cells.
In conclusion, the educational materials reported here incorporate
important tools of the scientific research world: the protocol notebook; the
use of instruments, equipment, models, and drawings; and the use of common
experimental model organisms.
|
NEW CHALLENGES AND CONCLUSIONS
|
|---|
It has been recognized that the traditional lecture is frequently a passive
experience for students and that approaches that enhance their active
participation in the learning process can deepen their understanding
(Bonwell and Eison, 1991). This
was our main goal while preparing our materials. As can be judged by the
comments of both teachers and students at the end of the activities, our goals
were achieved. Sometimes it was difficult to end the classes when it was time
to do so.
Two important new projects evolved from these materials and activities. The
first stemmed from the need to construct a digital library of high-quality
cell images. This is the goal of the Biodigital project
(Araújo-Jorge et al.,
2003), which is now partially developed, although it will always
be under construction. The second arose from the need for more frequent and
profound courses for training science teachers. A program for "Science
Education on Biology and Health"
(Grynszpan and Araujo-Jorge,
2000), addressing the need for teacher training and the new
course, has spawned M.Sc. and Ph.D. courses for science and biology teachers
who want to innovate in their own classrooms by interacting with scientists in
research centers.
Teaching and research can be mutually beneficial rather than competitive
pursuits (Huang, 2000).
Indeed, in Brazil, most scientific research is conducted at public
universities (Leta et al., 1997) and, therefore, by researchers who
are also teachers. The interest in how to integrate research and education is
stronger than ever and is spreading all over the world, due to greater public
awareness of the importance of science to economic development and social
well-being. The U.S. National Science Foundation
(1996) has initiated a number
of programs with the explicit purpose of promoting efforts toward such
integration. More significantly, the NSF has implemented a new policy to focus
the merit review criteria for research proposals into two categories: (a)
intellectual merit—the questions for this criterion include,
"What is the likelihood that the project will significantly advance the
knowledge base within and/or across different fields?" and (b)
broader impact, to include education as a desired research activity.
Here, the emphasis on education is shown in questions such as, "How well
does the activity advance discovery and understanding while concurrently
promoting teaching, training, and learning?" and "Does the
activity enhance scientific and technological literacy?"
Huang (2000) emphasized the
impact of an innovative curriculum on academics:
On many campuses, protocols to encourage faculty members to engage more
seriously in formal teaching have been established. At the Johns Hopkins
University, for instance, a teaching portfolio is suggested for those who come
up for promotion. A typical teaching portfolio might consist of the following
items: A statement of your teaching philosophy; educational programs you have
developed; curricular innovations; teaching material developed; student
evaluation; published scholarly education activity. This situation is a clear
change from the traditional assignment for faculty members to simply offer
courses in the form of lecture and/or laboratory exercises. If this reflects a
new movement, faculty members are given the signal to be more conscientious
about education than ever before on US campuses.
Distance learning and consortium labs are already a reality for research
projects. The idea of networking many NMR studies with a base unit, a
"collaboratory," is an example
(Kouzes et al., 1996;
Myers et al., 1997).
The arrangement, through collaborative demonstrations, promises that one can
do experiments and teach at a distance, sharing facilities and talents.
Linking nodes of databases and processing and integrating data may be another
avenue basic to biology, in research and in education. Attempts to form
teaching consortia are under consideration and amendable with the availability
of network devices (Kouzes et
al., 1996). The interdisciplinary approach to education may,
in the near-future, collect scientists into one "virtual room," a
single virtual laboratory. The daily activities of science, such as talking to
colleagues and students, reading journals and working in the laboratory, will
be conducted in a seamless digital theater.
However, good research is doubtful without a good sense of value and
sensibility. Cell biology, together with genetics and molecular biology, is
vulnerable to challenges in ethical or legal terms for its discoveries and
practices. The need to develop a sense of balance and ethical curiosity is
part of the education. We must not let the technological revolution drive us
to training technicians rather than educating scientists and citizens.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
|
|---|
This work is dedicated to all our colleagues at the Espaço
Ciência Viva, where all this begans. It is also dedicated to the
memory of two of our masters from the Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of
Biophysics, Dr. Hertha Meyer and Dr. Raul Dodsworth Machado, who always
supported our open-air outreach education activities with ideas, images, and
microscopes. The authors acknowledge A. Malcolm Campbell, Davidson College,
North Carolina, for his excellent revision of the English. This work was
supported by the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) and Conselho Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). Cláudia
Coutinho and Mauricio Luz are associate professors at the Laboratory of Cell
Biology within the Fiocruz agreements with the Universidade Federal Fluminense
(UFF) and Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ).
|
FOOTNOTES
|
|---|
Monitoring Editor: Mary Lee Ledbetter
Corresponding author. E-mail address:
taniaaj{at}ioc.fiocruz.br.
|
REFERENCES
|
|---|
Aguiar, L.E.V. (2000). Risques liés à la
corrosion: L'art comme moyen de motivation pour l'enseignement de corrosion
dans un cours de Chimie. In: Actes XXIIes Journées
Internationales sur la communication, l'éducation et la culture
scientifiques et industrielles, ed. A. Giordan, J.-L. Martin, and D.
Raichvarg. 441-446.Araújo-Jorge, T.C. (2000). Introducing
activities for scientific literacy and popularization in the academic
formation of young biological scientists in Brazil. Proceedings of the
International Symposium BioEd2000, IUBS—Unesco, Paris.
http://archive.concord.org/intl/cbe/pdf/araujo.pdf.
Araújo-Jorge, T.C., Coutinho, C.M.L.M., and Aguiar, L.E.V.
(1999). A giant cell model for cell biology
education. Proceedings of IOSTE 9, International Organization For
Science And Technology Education, Durban, South Africa, 26 June-2
July.
Araújo-Jorge, T.C., Cardona, T.S., Ávila, B., Gil,
L.M.B., Luz, M.R. M.P., Benevides, D., Guarany, P., Tucherman, L., and
Barbosa, H.S. (2003). Biodigital: Set up of a digital collection
to organize and facilitate the access to microscopical images and to produce
education materials. Microsc Microanal
9 (Suppl 2),1268
.
Bazin, M., Costa, C.G., Filippo, D.D.R., Kurtenbach, E., Camara,
M.S., Paciornik, S., Castro, S.L., and Araújo-Jorge, T.C.
(1987). Three years of Living Science: Learning from
experience. Science Literacy Papers, Oxford, Summer,67
-74.
Bhargava, P.M. (1995). New challenges in the teaching
of modern biology. Biochem. Educ.
23,120
-126.[CrossRef]
Bonwell, C.C. and Eison, J.A. (1991). Active
learning: Creating excitement in the classroom, ASHE ERIC Higher
Education Report No. 1. George Washington University. Summarized online at
http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/91-9dig.htm.
Accessed April 17, 2001.
Brown-Acquaye, H.A. (2001). Each is necessary and none
is redundant: the nedd for science in developing countries. Sci.
Educ. 85(1),68
-70.[CrossRef]
Caniato, R. (1992). Com ciência na
educação: ideário e prática de uma alternativa
brasileira para o ensino de ciência, 3a. ed. Campinas, SP,
Brazil: Papirus.
Carstensen, E.L., Child, S.Z., Crane, C., Miller, M.W., and Parker,
K.J. (1990). Lysis of cells in Elodea leaves by pulsed
and continuous wave ultrasound. Ultrasound Med. Biol.
16,167
-173.[CrossRef][Medline]
Castro-Moreira, I. (2003). Brazilian science at a
crossroads. Science 301(5630),141
.[Abstract]
Chiappetta, E.L. (1997). Inquiry-based science.Sci. Teach.
64,22
-26
Coura, J.R. (2000). The Oswaldo Cruz Institute and its
importance in the Brazilian society. Perspectives for the 21st century.Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz
95
(Suppl. I), 9-16.
DebBurman, S.K. (2002). Learning how scientists work:
Experiential research projects to promote cell biology learning and scientific
process skills. Cell Biol. Educ.
1,154
-172.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Ekstrom, J.V. (2000). Cell structure study. The
Sci. Teach. 67(7),53
-55.
Ekstrom, J. (2001). Slicing for biology. The
Sci. Teach. 68(2),56
-60.
Ekstrom, J. (2002). Microscopic digital imaging in
introductory biology. Microsc. Microanal.
8(Suppl. 2),456
.
Grynszpan, D., and Araújo-Jorge, T.C. (2000).
Education for science and science for education: more than a game with words.Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz
, 95,49
-52.
Hodgkin, J., Horvitz, H.R., Jasny, B.R., and Kimble, J.
(1998). C. elegans: Sequence to biology.Science
282,2011
.[CrossRef]
Huang, P.C. (2000). The integrative nature of
biochemistry: Challenges of biochemical education in the USA. Biochem.
Educ. 28,64
-70.[CrossRef][Medline]
Kouzes, R.T., Myers, J.D., and Wulf, W.A. (1996).
Collaboratories: Doing science on the internet, IEEE Comp.
29,40
-46.
Lanza, J. (1988). Whys and hows of undergraduate
research. Bio-Science 38(2),110
-112.[CrossRef]
Leta, J., Lannes, D., and De Meis, L. (1998). Human
resources and scientific productivity in Brazil. Scientometric
41,313
-324.[CrossRef]
Manney, R.T., and Manney, L.M. (1992). Yeast: A
research organism for teaching genetics. Am. Biol. Teach.
54,426
-431.
Morgan, W.R. (1999, Nov. 5). Bio 306 genetics
home page. Available:
http://www.wooster.edu/biology/bio306/.
Accessed June 15, 1999.
Myers, J., Chonacky, N., Dunning, T., and Lebner, E.
(1997). Collaboratories: Bringing national laboratories into the
undergraduate classroom and laboratory via the internet. Coun.
Undergrad. Res. (CUR) Q. 17,116
-120.
National Science Foundation. (1996). Shaping
the future—New expectations for undergraduate education in science,
mathematics, engineering, and technology.
http://www.ehr.nsf.gov/ehr/due/documents/review/96139/start.htm.
Uno, G.E. (1997). Learning about learning through
teaching about inquiry. In McNeal, A.P. & Avanzo, C.D. (Eds.)Student active science: Models of Innovation in College Science
Teachings
, eds. A.P. McNeal and C.D. Avenzo. New York: Saunders
College, 189-200.
Walker, N.A. (1994). Sodium-coupled symports in the
plasma membranes of plant cells. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol.
48,179
-192.[Medline]
Xavier, M. (1997). Mitos: O folclore do mestre
André. Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Formato,27
.
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
