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Articles |
Department of Biology, St. John Fisher College, Rochester, NY 14618
Submitted August 31, 2005; Revised February 21, 2006; Accepted March 1, 2006
Monitoring Editor: Deborah Allen
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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According to Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom and Krathwohl, 1956; Krathwohl et al., 1964), we must strive to create learning environments that give students opportunities to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. Only when students actively process information in this way do they attain a true understanding of the topic (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005). Such critical thinking skills transcend disciplines; nevertheless, their importance to developing a meaningful comprehension of experimental science is obvious. In recent years, partly because of pressure from accrediting bodies, a culture of evidence has evolved such that defining and subsequently monitoring assessable criteria of student learning are considered integral components of any successful academic program (American Association for Higher Education, 1992; Angelo, 1995; Heady, 2000).
Because learning outcomes are articulated by institutions/departments/course instructors, it becomes clear that scientific knowledge should be taught in a relevant context that explores real-life issues. Students, regardless of major, need to understand that science 1) is interconnected with other disciplines, 2) has ethical implications, and 3) must be used to make informed decisions that impact individuals and society. Hobson (2001) argues that making science courses more socially and culturally relevant is a critical component to educating undergraduates to be scientifically literate. This relevance can be brought into the classroom with hypothetical and/or real-world problem-solving scenarios. For example, service learning, when students apply content knowledge to assist in some way in their community, has become a successful pedagogical technique (Battistoni, 1995). Ultimately, a good foundation in content knowledge and the development of critical thinking skills are essential for lifelong learners.
The multifaceted assignment described in this article uses nonscientific literature to enrich a scientific topic of focus. I have used it successfully in an undergraduate neuroscience course designed for biology majors, although it could be easily adapted for many science courses. It involves reading assignments, a reaction essay, and the production of an informational pamphlet. This pedagogical technique was instrumental in providing the impetus for students to seek understanding of nervous system function, appreciate the interdisciplinary nature of science, and grapple with the ethical implications of scientific discoveries. The project was woven into course readings, discussions, and assessment and effectively reinforced and enhanced the content knowledge while requiring students to be both analytical and reflective thinkers.
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PROJECT DESIGN |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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With the learning outcomes identified, my next tasks were to decide on a topic of focus and to select a piece of literature that would supplement the content. Here, the term literature is used in its broadest definition and it is left to the discretion of individual instructors to determine what can best serve as the catalyst for student learning. In the written form, it could be works of fiction or nonfiction, poetry, essays, and short stories. It does not have to be limited to the written word because there are many films, plays, and artwork that could serve as the springboard for further study. Viewing a film together can stimulate immediate discussion and debate. Interpreting the meaning of a relevant poem or a piece of art forces students to appreciate the interdisciplinary nature of learning. The majority of students are young and healthy, so it is particularly effective to use literature before studying a particular disease/condition/dysfunction, because most students have little or no experience with it. Because this project was going to span the entire semester and would require a more in-depth exploration of a topic, I decided to have the students read a book. I chose to focus on the neurodegenerative disorder amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; Lou Gehrig's disease) and have the students read Tuesdays with Morrie: An Old Man, A Young Man, and Life's Greatest Lesson by Mitch Albom (Albom, 1997).
Once I identified the literature to be used, I created a timeline for the project that aligned with the presentation of related course material and I included this information on the syllabus. There are three main elements to the project: 1) read/view the selected literature, 2) react to the literature in a short essay, and 3) create an informational pamphlet on the topic/condition/disease dealt with in the literature that is subsequently studied from a scientific perspective (Figure 2). I set a deadline for reading the book 1 wk before when we were to begin studying the motor system. The story added some personal/emotional context to the motor system topic for the students. By completing the literature assignment in advance, it served as a catalyst for learning the underlying physiology, pharmacology, and anatomy that elucidates both normal function and dysfunction. The essay was due 1 wk later, as we began our exploration of the motor system. I provided focus questions for students to respond to the literature in a reaction essay. Completion of the essay was one indicator that students were prepared for in-class discussions and collaborative work on the topic. The due date for the informational pamphlet was several weeks later, after students had gained the necessary scientific knowledge to thoughtfully synthesize ideas, evaluate data, and effectively communicate information. During this time, I crafted in-class and out-of-class activities that provided the appropriate scaffolding to students, i.e., text reading, class discussion, lecture topics, and problem-solving exercises, to support each student's efforts.
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The content-rich science component of the project was the creation of an informational pamphlet for which I provided explicit instructions. Although there was a single topic that all students were to address, i.e., ALS, the assignment was crafted in a way to make each project unique. Students chose a sponsoring organization for their pamphlet and identified their target population. Examples were provided to the students, but they were urged to consider their interests. Students had to convey relevant information based on their chosen perspective. All students needed to include essentials about the etiology and pathogenesis of the disease, but depending on the perspective chosen, each student would illustrate this information differently. In addition, students were required to do a literature search, select a journal article from a peer-reviewed journal, and incorporate a succinct and effective summary of the study in the pamphlet. Students also submitted a bibliography of their sources.
Along with detailed instructions for the project, I provided an explanation for how and when assessment would take place. Furthermore, I conveyed how the project components aligned with specific learning outcomes (Figure 3) (Lynd-Balta et al., 2006). If an instructor clearly articulates the outcomes from the outset, it can help reduce the anxiety some students may have for the nontraditional assignment. A rubric used for assessing the pamphlet is illustrated in Figure 4. Students were encouraged to consult the rubric and use it as a guide as they worked on their projects. A rubric is a particularly useful tool to convey the significance of particular instructions (Montgomery, 2002). A rubric can be prepared using RubiStar, a free online service to teachers at http://rubistar.4teachers.org. The seven categories I used included content/accuracy, research summary, sponsoring organization, organization/originality, graphics/pictures, writing/organization, and bibliography. Categories can be specific to a particular aspect of the assignment, i.e., the research summary, or they can be generalized, i.e., writing/organization. For each category, an instructor can write appropriate descriptors, or use prewritten descriptors provided on the Web site, that correspond to a particular letter grade. I also made reduced sized copies of the rubric, along with room for comments. At the completion of the project, each student received an individual copy of the rubric in which I indicated what level was achieved for each category, additional written comments, and an overall grade for the assignment, thus providing constructive and consistent feedback to all students.
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PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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| Box 1. Student Responses. Excerpts of students' responses demonstrate the reflective thinking used in their reaction essays. "As a society, we often associate ‘life' with movement and I believed before reading this book that if I had lost the ability to freely move and be able to do the ‘little things' that are often taken for granted, I would not want to live much longer..." "However, if you are not confronting death, most people are not as receptive to your epiphanies ... I also find it uncommon for people of my generation to take responsibility for anything, even if it is very clearly a direct result of their actions ..." "The majority at large has a very weak understanding of the concept of awareness. While there is a significant lack of global or local awareness, more disheartening is the lack of self-awareness. Very few individuals can wholeheartedly say they know what they want from life or what they are truly made of ..."
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The literature was assigned early in the semester and provided some context for the science to come. In class, we studied motor neuron function, reflexes, and motor circuits. Once basic molecular, cellular, and circuit mechanisms were understood, students had opportunities to apply the information in problem-solving scenarios. Students read journal articles and compared the symptoms and underlying pathophysiology of a variety of motor system disorders and used this clinical information to better comprehend normal function. In addition, students were presented with hypothetical scenarios and then made predictions about potential symptoms/outcomes. All of these exercises reinforced the main concepts of cell-to-cell communication and motor pathways while also providing students with opportunities to develop critical thinking skills. In addition, several readings focused on the issue of assisted suicide (Ganzini et al., 1998; Poenisch, 1998; Rowland, 1998). Exploration of this topic led to extensive class discussion regarding the ethical implications of scientific advances. Students voiced and heard varying opinions on the issue and gained skills in evaluating information and defending arguments.
Next, students created unique ALS informational pamphlets that demonstrated their understanding of concepts within the context of an appropriate sponsoring organization (for example, neurologists, hospice care providers, proeuthanasia group, and support group for caregivers) and taking into consideration their target population. Students selected a variety of perspectives when creating their pamphlets. Most students opted for a sponsoring organization in the healthcare field and targeted patients. However, some chose to focus on caregivers, family members, or both. One student created a bilingual pamphlet and focused on minority populations in the healthcare system. Despite varying perspectives, all pamphlets had to supply basic information about the disease. In addition, students provided a summary of a recent research study from primary literature in their pamphlets. Students identified the hypothesis being tested, described the basic methodology, and reviewed the main findings. Students had to critically analyze the work and judge the significance of the study.
Students produced pamphlets that demonstrated originality and conveyed their understanding of the content material. Furthermore, the pamphlet format required students to be both creative and succinct when conveying information. All students created their pamphlets on the computer using common software (Microsoft Word, Microsoft FrontPage, and Adobe PageMaker were most often used). Students mixed text with graphics, provided appropriate headings, and used colors and symbols to give the pamphlets a professional appearance.
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ANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNING |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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To determine whether acquisition of content knowledge is affected by inclusion of the project, scores on exam questions relating to motor system content were compared for the two groups. Students had to answer the same questions on the motor system as part of the cumulative final (Sample Exam Questions, see Supplemental Material). Because it is the final, these exams are not returned to the students, so I was confident that students in the subsequent semester had no unfair advantage. As can be seen in Figure 5, the average student score for both groups was close to the same, with an average of 70% for the project group (range 50–94%) and a slightly higher average of 72% for the control group (range 54–100%).
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There are many moral and ethical questions surrounding scientific advances, medical practices, and human behavior that are relevant to neuroscience. The issue of assisted suicide was raised as students researched ALS in the process of creating their pamphlets. We read scientific papers, personal stories, and news articles that dealt with the subject from varying perspectives. The information sparked extensive in-class discussions about disease processes, individual's rights, and society's responsibilities. I observed that the students in the project group were eager to debate these issues with their peers and that they even requested that additional class time be given to the discussion. The majority of students in the project group indicated that they found the in-depth examination of assisted suicide from multiple perspectives a valuable component of the course. In contrast, although I raised moral and ethical questions during class time with the control group, the discussions were limited, with only a few students contributing views. When students in the control group were asked whether they had opportunities to explore the ethical implications of scientific advances in this course, only one student thought there were many opportunities, and nearly one-half of the class (40%) responded that there were few opportunities provided.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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One of the advantages of this project is that an instructor can modify it as needed. Importantly if one begins by delineating the student learning outcomes, then these goals can guide the entire planning process (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005). I chose to focus on the motor system and ALS as the associated neurological condition, and I selected a relevant book for required reading, but this is just one of many possible scenarios. The majority of learning outcomes could be met by focusing on an entirely different aspect of the nervous system. In addition, the informational pamphlet could focus on nervous system function, rather than dysfunction. For example, the pamphlet could be modeled after Brain Backgrounders and Brain Briefings, which are short narratives published by the Society for Neuroscience that are designed to inform the public about our current understanding of specific aspects of brain function and to delineate links between basic research and clinical advances (http://web.sfn.org). Students could construct informational pamphlets on any neuroscience topic (e.g., glia, chemical synapses, and memory) and include facts, data analysis, and resource information. What is more important than the topic per se is that the project provides opportunities for students to develop critical thinking skills, to explore a particular topic in depth, and to recognize the interactions between science and society. Although I have not had any problems with plagiarism, altering the literature and focus topic during different semesters could reduce the risk of this happening. The potential for plagiarism is also reduced by having students choose a particular perspective when creating their pamphlet because this helps personalize the project and makes each pamphlet unique. When students brought their pamphlets to class, they were interested to see what their peers had created. It could be useful to plan a more structured review of pamphlets among peers.
Summative assessments typically evaluate end products, and they are used to arrive at a particular grade for each student. Common summative assessments used in science courses are exams, factual essays, and laboratory reports. This project uses two summative assessment tools that are not typically found in science courses—a reaction essay requiring personal reflection (rather than a factual summary) and an information pamphlet designed from a particular perspective chosen by the student. In my neuroscience course, these innovative techniques complement the traditional exam-based assessments that account for the majority of the student's final course grade. The project grade was given the same weight as one exam grade when determining final grades. Thus, the students did recognize that the project was a significant component that required their attention. Furthermore, by offering the students some alternative assessments, they had multiple opportunities to demonstrate their mastery of important learning outcomes. Because it is the responsibility of the instructor to engage every student, many with different learning styles and strengths, this diversity of assessment is crucial (Walvoord and Anderson, 1998; Tanner and Allen, 2004). For example, a student who has done mediocre exam work and has trouble with test anxiety now has additional chances to succeed. I also made use of in-class discussion and group problem-solving exercises related to the project at different points in the semester as formative assessment tools. These activities helped to motivate the students and allowed me to monitor student learning. Because students enter the classroom with preconceived ideas (both correct and incorrect) that must be recognized by the instructor and student alike, it is important to get feedback and then respond proactively to make necessary changes in instruction before administering summative assessments (Posner et al., 1982; Tanner and Allen, 2005).
It is difficult enough determining what scientific content to include/exclude in a one-semester course. At first, it may seem impossible or detrimental to add a literature segment, particularly if it is seen as taking away from the science. Thus, student exam scores were recorded over two semesters—one semester when the project was included in the course and one semester when the project was not incorporated. As a caveat, there are many variables that could affect group averages when examining grades from a heterogeneous population of students. This being said, a comparison of exam scores demonstrates that both groups had approximately the same average and same range of scores, thus indicating that retention of content material was equivalent at the end of the semester. What did the students in the project group gain? The project was designed to address multiple learning outcomes and to create measurable parameters of learning (Figure 3). Several of the learning outcomes are not content specific; rather, they reflect skills that a student should develop across the college curriculum to set the stage for lifelong learning. The open-ended nature of the project requires students to apply the content knowledge and problem-solve by using many higher-level thinking skills. The reaction essay and pamphlet are products that can be assessed to evaluate whether particular outcomes are met. In addition, this project may be particularly helpful to achieve specific goals often overlooked in traditional science courses, such as the impact of science on society and ethical considerations. For example, readings associated with ALS served as an excellent springboard for discussions of moral and ethical questions associated with end-of-life issues. Rather than dealing with science as an isolated entity, this project allows for a more formal, systematic approach to incorporate multiple disciplines and other ways of thinking about a topic. Interestingly, the students in the project group recognized the impact science has on society and individual lives. In contrast, when students in the control group reflected on the content in the course, they did not make these same connections. Thus, inclusion of the project did not dilute the science, but rather it enriched the science by putting it in a context relevant to the students' lives. Storytelling is an excellent teaching tool and is used extensively with case study methodologies (Herreid, 2005). The literature incorporated into this project provides a story that captivates students' attention, personalizes the topic, and subsequently motivates students to understand the relevant science from multiple perspectives.
National scientific bodies/agencies are calling for significant improvements in methods of teaching and assessment (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; National Research Council, 2002). In addition, science educators who have successfully revamped courses and programs are now reverberating the call (Hake, 1998; Handelsman et al., 2004). Proponents of science education reform seek to promote meaningful learning that relates to the real world rather than rote memorization of isolated facts and figures. Such learning is critical to both the science major and the nonscience major alike. Any student wishing to pursue a career in a science-related field needs to acquire a strong knowledge base and to develop a diverse repertoire of analytical skills. Just as important, with the pervasiveness of science and technology in the world today, it can be argued that for an individual to make informed decisions (e.g., regarding public policy, personal health choices, and so on), he/she needs a clear understanding of unifying scientific concepts along with the ability to problem-solve. This project weaves together multiple pedagogical strategies and provides opportunities for students to develop critical thinking skills. It requires both individual reflection along with collaborative work. The alternative assessments provide authentic measures of wide-ranging learning outcomes. By incorporating literature and innovative pedagogy in introductory courses, a science educator can persuasively illustrate the power and excitement of science and spark the interests of a diverse student body.
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FOOTNOTES |
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPROJECT DESIGNPROJECT IMPLEMENTATIONANALYSIS OF STUDENT LEARNINGDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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American Association for Higher Education. (1992). Principles of good practice for assessing students learning , Washington, DC:.
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Herreid C. F. (2005). Using Case Studies to Teach Science , Washington, DC: American Institute of Biological Sciences.
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Rowland L. P. (1998). Assisted suicide and alternatives in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. N. Engl. J. Med 339, 987–989.
Seymour E. and Hewitt E. (1997). Talking About Leaving: Factors Contributing to High Attrition Rates among Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Undergraduate Majors , Boulder, CO: Bureau of Sociological Research.
Tanner K. and Allen D. (2004). Approaches to biology teaching and learning: learning styles and the problem of instructional selection – engaging all students in science courses. Cell Biol. Educ 3, 1–7.
Tanner K. and Allen D. (2005). Approaches to biology teaching and learning: understanding the wrong answers – teaching toward conceptual change. Cell Biol. Educ 4, 1–8.
Tobias S. (1990). They're Not Dumb, They're Different: Stalking the Second Tier , Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation.
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